Bitterbark tree, Cherry Mahogany - Fact sheet
FACT SHEET
Written by
Kudzai Musengi - African Food Enthusiast, Founder of Sensational Seasonals
Researched by
Trust Nyirenda - PhD (Plant Medicine) Inview, MSc Medicine
Elliot Nyagumbo - MPhil (Ethnopharmacology and Toxicology), MSc (Plant Biotechnology), BSc (Plant Biochemistry)
WHAT IS THE FOOD/PLANT
Bitterbark tree, Cherry Mahogany - Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb.
WHERE IS IT FOUND
Congo, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Cameroon, Nigeria, Gabon
ETHNOMEDICAL USES
An infusion is used as an emetic and in the treatment of fevers, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and abdominal pain - it is also sometimes used to treat hypertension and diabetes. A bark decoction is used to treat stomach-ache. It is used as a spice in food to induce heat in nursing and pregnant mothers. In coastal Cameroon the Kola pygmies and Mvae people use a decoction of the crushed bark mixed with leaves of Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. as a rectal enema to treat acute abdominal pain. In Congo a decoction of the stem bark is used to cure difficult cases of dermatitis. In Sierra Leone a bark decoction is used to treat stomach-ache and it also used as a spice in food to induce heat in nursing and pregnant mothers. In coastal Côte d’Ivoire the diluted stem sap is used in hipbaths to promote muscle tone in women after childbirth. In Gabon an extract of the stem bark is drunk as an emetic. In Senegal and Congo a stem bark decoction is mixed with other plants and added to bath water to treat ovarian troubles, vaginal infections and children with fever. It is also reported to have aphrodisiac properties (Tropical Plants Database, 2021). Plant used in traditional medicine in the treatment of HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases in Gabon (Tchouya et al., 2015a,b). Medicines: pain-killers, stomach troubles, emetic, genital stimulants/depressants; venereal diseases and fabrifuges. Sacoglottis gabonensis is a medicinal plant used in the treatment of Buruli ulcer in Côte d’Ivoire (Brigitte et al., 2018). Treating and managing malaria in Nigeria (Ukwubile et al., 2020).
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
Phytochemical screening revealed the presence in all the plant parts extracts of potentially bioactive molecules, including polyphenols, tannins, flavonoids, saponosides, alkaloids and sugars (Tsouh Fokou et al., 2015; Tchouya et al., 2015b) The results of the phytochemical analysis of Sacoglottis gabonensis both in water and dichloromethane extract showed the presence of steroids, saponins, glycocides, alkaloids and tannins (Dibofori-Orji and Ali, 2019).
Two bioactive substances, involved in the antimicrobial property of the plant were isolated, and their structures assigned as known compounds, bergenin and gallic acid (Tchouya et al., 2015b). Bergenin, an isocoumarin, has been identified as the main active compound of the stem bark. The bark also contains appreciable amounts of tannins, with a trace of saponins. They have also revealed the presence of 2 cis/trans isomers of lignans (calopiptine and galgravine) which may play a role in cancer prevention. The stem bark extract is reported to have hepatoprotective properties. A stem bark extract added to drinking water of rats increased prothrombin and thrombin levels of blood plasma (Tropical Plants Database, 2021). Bergenin is commercially extracted from Ardisia and Bergenia spp. (Siberian tea and marlberry bush) and is used as a weight-loss product, e.g. in body building, and in Chinese medicine to increase body heat (Dounias, 2008).
Bergenin is a C-glucoside of 4-O-methyl gallic acid found in the form of colourless crystalline compound. It is isolated from different plants such as Bergenial crassifolia, Corylopsis spicata, Caesalpinia digyna, Mallotus japonicus and also including Sacoglottis gabonensis. Isolation and characterization of bergenin were confirmed through different spectroscopic methods. Bergenin exhibits antihepatotoxic, antiulcerogenic, anti-HIV, antifungal, hepatoprotective, antiarrhythmic, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and burn wound healing properties (Patel et al., 2012).
CULINARY USE/ NUTRITIONAL CONTENT -
The fruit is edible, sweet and tastes like banana bread. It is mainly eaten by children and can be used to make an alcoholic drink. A sweet flavour, it tastes like banana bread. The fruits are the source of a fermented drink called 'stouton' and seeds can be grilled as they contain 54% of a fatty oil. The peeled bark is added to palm wine. It is claimed to prolong the shelf life of the wine, add potency, reduce foaming and impart a bitter taste. The alcohol content of palm wine from Raphia hookeri, when the stem bark was added, became almost twice as high as that of untreated palm wine. It was found that the ethanol tolerance and osmo-tolerance of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were enhanced by the bark extract, whereas flocculation and invertase activity were reduced (Tropical Plants Database, 2021). Stem bark is used as a palm wine additive, as it is claimed to prolong the shelf life of the wine, add potency, reduce foaming and impart a bitter taste (Dounias, 2008).
PHARMACOLOGY -
The bark extract also exerted a sparing effect on tissue antioxidant vitamins, ascorbic acid and vitamin E, effectively inhibiting their depletion by 2,4-DNPH or ethanol in the liver, red blood cells and brain. It is being concluded that the mechanism of antioxidant action of the bark extract against membrane peroxidation is multifactorial/multisystem, involving inhibition of catalase, enhancing the SOD capability of the liver and red blood cells and sparing tissue depletion/utilization of vitamins C (ascorbic acid) and E (alpha-tocopherol) Maduka and Okoye, 2002). Anticoagulant effects of the bark extract have been investigated (Madusolumuo & Okoye, 1993a, 1995; Okoye & Ohaeri, 1995), and the effect of S. gabonensis extract on the serum levels of acetaminophen and acetylsalicylic acid have been studied (Madusolumuo & Okoye, 1993b).
The methanolic extract of Sacoglottis gabonensis stem bark paralysed the larvae in a time and concentration – dependent manner. It took the maximum, (62.5 mg/ml) and the minimum, (15.625 mg/ml) concentrations of the extract 60 and 150 minutes respectively, to record 100% larval paralysis. However, only the activity of 125 mg/ml concentration of the extract was found to be compatible with 25 mg/ml of the standard drug, levamisole. Nonetheless, the findings confirm the folkloric claims made for Sacoglottis gabonensis stem bark as traditional anthelmintics (Onyenwe et al., 2010). In conclusion therefore, the results of this study have shown that the crude aqueous extract of the stem bark of S. gabonensis has anthelmintic activity against strongyline nematodes through reduction in adult worm burden and termination of egg production by the worms (Nwosu et al., 2008).
The leaves and stem bark crude extracts of S. gabonensis, exhibited in vitro antimicrobial (Faparusi and Osiyemi, 1973; Tsouh Fokou et al., 2015; Tchouya et al., 2015b). Eze, 2017 study showed that the aqueous extract of S. gabonensis stem bark extract produced both in vitro and in vivo anticoccidial activity against Eimeria tenella and E. maxima exhibited through substantial reduction in oocysts out-put and their sporulation, as well as appreciation of PCV, RBC count, Hb concentration, weight gain, total protein and albumin of Eimeria infected birds. The efficacy was more pronounced when the treatment with the extracts was done for five rather than one day. Consequently, the results suggest the possible usefulness of the plants in routine control of avian coccidiosis in Nigeria.
The stem bark extract is reported to have hepatoprotective properties. Both the extract and bergenin reduced the rate of formation of intermediates of the lipid peroxidation pathway (lipid hydroperoxide aldehydes, carbonyls) as well as complementing the primary anti-oxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase during 2,4-DNPH-induced membrane lipid peroxidation in rat liver and red blood cells. In vivo in rats, bergenin protects against 2,4-DNPH-induced hepatotoxicity and toxicity to red blood cells. However, in another experiment, a stem bark extract given orally to rats showed hepatotoxicity even at low doses. Bergenin also protects stored vegetable oils against peroxidative deterioration over a period of time. A stem bark extract added to drinking water of rats increased prothrombin and thrombin levels of blood plasma. Further analyses of stem bark extract have shown tannins in appreciable amounts with a trace of saponins. They have also revealed the presence of 2 cis/trans isomers of lignans (calopiptine and galgravine) which may play a role in cancer prevention (Dounias, 2008).
OTHER INTERESTING USES
The bark is used as a fish poison. The wood of Sacoglottis gabonensis is widely, though locally, used for house and bridge construction, flooring, interior trim, joinery, mine props, electricity poles, shipbuilding, vehicle bodies, furniture, cabinet work, railway sleepers, toys, novelties, turnery and pattern making. In Liberia and Nigeria, it is used to make canoes and in Gabon for the ribs of boats. The wood is a good firewood and produces a valuable charcoal. In coastal Cameroon the seeds are grilled and eaten by pygmies. The sweetness of the resin stored in the cavities of the stone is much sought by bees (Dounias, 2008).
The results of Elijah et al., 2010 study indicate that S. gabonensis reduced the rate of fermentation of palm wine by S. cerevisiae as well as the sedimentation rate of the yeast, but increased the specific growth rate (μmax) of the yeast. These findings provide useful information necessary for further utilization of these botanicals for industrial fermentations involving yeasts.
HOW TO COOK -
TOXICITY -
The stem bark aqueous extract of this plant has a lethal dose 50% (LD50) higher than 5000 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) in mice and is nontoxic for rats when administered subacutely. The blood smear didn’t show any abnormality in erythrocyte cells’ size, shape and staining of the rats treated with S. gabonensis stem back extract. In sum, this study revealed that the aqueous extract of S. gabonensis stem bark is nontoxic on blood cells, at a therapeutic dose 3.5 mg/kg b. w. for 90 days-administration in rats. (Brigitte et al., 2018). Udosen and Ojong, 1998 administered a saline extract to rats at i.p. doses of 125 and 250 mg/kg body weight, serum enzymes indicative of liver damage were elevated in a dose dependent manner. Histological examination of the livers of the treated animals showed mild sinusoidal dilatation and early necrosis (125 mg/kg) or moderate sinusoidal dilatation and congestion with focal hepatocyte necrosis (250 mg/kg). These results showed that the bark extract of Sacoglottis gabonensis is hepatotoxic. The results of the acute toxicity showed that stem bark extract of S. gabonensis did not produce any significant effects at the 200 - 1200 mg/kg doses. The extract was found to be mildly toxic at dosage of 1600 mg/kg. The pathological lesions observed in the liver may be as a result of damage caused in the organ during biotransformation of the active chemical components of the extracts by the organ. The extracts only produced a toxic effect at the highest concentration (2000 mg/kg). The toxic effects were mainly slight haemorrhages and congestion in the liver (SG and AI), heart, lungs (SG) and intestines (SG and MX) and degeneration and necrosis of lymphoid follicles (SG), hepatocytes (AI) and tubular cells of the kidney (MX) (Eze, 2017).
The signs of preliminary toxicity were noted in treated mice within 1–2 min of the intraperitoneal injection of the extract. The signs observed included depression, drowsiness, unsteady gait and paralysis of the hind limbs, dyspnoea, coma and death. The severity of the clinical signs was dose related. Deaths were not recorded in the group given 400 and 800 mg/kg of the extract while mortality was 100% among those that received the highest dose (3200 mg/kg). Only one animal died in the group treated with 1600 mg/kg. The intra-peritoneal LD50 of the extract was considered to be between 1600 and 3200 mg/kg, ip. No pathological lesions were observed in all the surviving and control rats killed at the end of the study. However, the rats that died from the extract toxicity showed varying degrees of dehydration, congestion, oedema of the lungs, bronchi and bronchioles. There was hepatomegally with focal necrosis of liver cells. The lesions were most severe in the rats that received the highest concentration of the extract (Nwosu et al., 2008).
REFERENCES
Brigitte, K. K., Euserbe, A. A., Mama, K., Duni, S., & Paul, Y. A. (2018). Influence of an aqueous extract of Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baille) urban (Humiriaceae) stem bark, a plant used in the traditional treatment of Buruli ulcer, on anthropometric and hematological parameters in Wistar rat. Group, 600, 800.
Dibofori-Orji, A. N and Ali, S. T. (2019). Phytochemical and Some Heavy Metals Analysis of Stembark Extract of Sacoglottis Gabonensis. Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 6(5):34-39
Dounias, E., (2008). Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Schmelzer, G.H. & Gurib-Fakim, A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. <http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp>. Accessed 23 September 2021.
Elijah, A. I., Ojimelukwe, P. C., Ekong, U. S., & Asamudo, N. U. (2010). Effect of Sacoglottis gabonensis and Alstonia boonei on the kinetics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae isolated from palm wine. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9(35).
Eze, C. P. (2017). Toxicity of Aqueous Extracts of Sacoglottis Gabonensis, Azadirachta Indica and Their Efficacy Against Eimeria Tenella and Eimeria Maxima Infection in Broiler Chickens (Doctoral dissertation).
Maduka, H. C. C., & Okoye, Z. S. C. (2002). The effect of Sacoglottis gabonensis stem bark extract, a Nigerian alcoholic beverage additive, on the natural antioxidant defences during 2, 4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine-induced membrane peroxidation in vivo. Vascular pharmacology, 39(1-2), 21-31.
Madusolumuo MA, Okoye ZSC (1993a): Effect of Sacoglottis gabonensis stem bark extract, a Nigerian palmwine additive, on serum levels of acetaminophen and acetylsalicylic acid. Med Sci Res 21: 603–604.
Madusolumuo MA, Okoye ZSC (1993b): Effect of Sacoglottis gabonensis stem bark extract on anticoagulant properties of acetylsalicylic and acetaminophen. Med Sci Res 21: 719–720.
Madusolumuo MA, Okoye ZSC (1995): Anticoagulant properties of bergenin from Sacoglottis gabonensis stem. Med Sci Res 23: 443–444.
Nwosu, C. O., Eneme, T. A., Onyeyili, P. A., & Ogugbuaja, V. O. (2008). Toxicity and anthelmintic efficacy of crude aqueous of extract of the bark of Sacoglottis gabonensis. Fitoterapia, 79(2), 101-105.
Onyenwe, I. W., Ngongeh, L. A., Udekwu, C. C., & Ezeugwu, G. O. (2010). Preliminary studies on the anthelmintic effects of ethanolic extract of Garcinia kola (heckel) seed and methanolic extract of sacoglottis gabonensis (baillon) stem bark on Heligmosomoides bakeri larvae in Nsukka, Nigeria. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 16(1).
Patel, D. K., Patel, K., Kumar, R., Gadewar, M., & Tahilyani, V. (2012). Pharmacological and analytical aspects of bergenin: a concise report. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 2(2), 163-167.
Tchouya, G. R. F., Obiang, G. D. N., Bongui, J. B., & Lebibi, J. (2015b). Phytochemical study of Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. Isolation of bioactive compounds from the stem bark. Chemical Science International Journal, 1-5.
Tchouya, G. R. F., Souza, A., Tchouankeu, J. C., Yala, J. F., Boukandou, M., Foundikou, H., ... & Lebibi, J. (2015a). Ethnopharmacological surveys and pharmacological studies of plants used in traditional medicine in the treatment of HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases in Gabon. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 162, 306-316.
Tropical Plants Database, Ken Fern. tropical.theferns.info. 2021-09-23. <tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Sacoglottis+gabonensis>
Tsouh Fokou, P. V., Nyarko, A. K., Appiah-Opong, R., Tchokouaha Yamthe, L. R., Ofosuhene, M., & Boyom, F. F. (2015). Update on medicinal plants with potency on Mycobacterium ulcerans. BioMed research international, 2015.
Udosen, E. O., & Ojong, A. S. (1998). Note Hepatotoxic Activity of Sacoglottis gabonensis in rats. Pharmaceutical biology, 36(5), 368-371.
Ukwubile, C. A., Otalu, O., Abdulrahim, U., Angyu, A. E., Aliyu, Y. K., Njidda, S., & Bingari, M. S. (2020). Ethnomedicinal Survey of Medicinal Plants Traditionally Used in Ogurugu Community Southeast Nigeria for the Treatment of Malaria. Int J Trad Complement Med, 5, 30.
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